Examining the Relationship Between Equitable Access to Potable Water, Household Socio-Economic Status, and Women's Livelihood in Kilome Subcounty, Makueni County, Kenya

Abstract

Access to safe, reliable, and affordable water is a significant factor in relation to health, productivity, and gender equity for rural women and households. But water insecurity is a long-standing issue in many rural communities, where women lack access to good infrastructure, water sources are far away, water prices are steep, and their water supplies are inconsistent. These difficulties lead to time poverty, health risks, the lack of education, and limited involvement in income-generating activities. The study investigated the link between water security and outcomes for women's livelihoods in Kilome Sub-County, Makueni County, Kenya, and evaluated the interaction of water security with household socio-economic status (SES) on these livelihood outcomes. Water security was defined in terms of four dimensions: availability, accessibility, quality, and affordability. The study was directed by the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, Gender and Development Theory, and the Ecological Systems Theory. The explanatory sequential mixed methods design was utilized. The quantitative data were obtained from 375 women who were selected from a target population of 5939 women using Yamane's (1967) formula with a multi-stage sampling procedure, which involved purposive selection of wards and systematic random sampling of households. Key Informant Interviews (KII) were used to collect qualitative data with local administration, community leaders, and NGO representatives. To analyse quantitative data, descriptive statistics and three-step hierarchical multiple regression were used, while qualitative data were analysed thematically. Poor water availability (Mean = 2.14) and accessibility (Mean = 2.46) suggested not only poor supply but also high waiting time and long distances to access water, while water quality (Mean = 2.71) and water affordability (Mean = 2.78) were moderate and diverse across socio-economic groups and water sources. The mean score for women's livelihood outcomes was high (Mean = 4.21) owing to their participation in small-scale agriculture, petty trade, and household production in favourable water conditions. The hierarchical regression revealed that the four water security dimensions individually accounted for 11.8% of the women's livelihood outcomes (Model 1: Adjusted R² = 0.108). The addition of SES and the demographic controls of age and education increased the explained variance to 39.1% (Model 2; Adjusted R² = .376), with education being the single most important predictor. The interaction block added a small but statistically significant increment (Model 3; ΔR² = .018, p = .028), so that the effects of water availability and water quality on livelihoods were buffered by SES, but water affordability and access were not. The study finds that water security is not just a basic need of the household but also a structural determinant of women's economic empowerment and gender equity, which depends on the socio-economic position of the household. The study recommends the strengthening of water infrastructure in rural areas (borehole, piped water, storage tanks), increased water quality monitoring and decentralized water treatment systems, progressive and equitable water tariff structures to increase water affordability, women's economic empowerment programmes to increase income generation from time saved in water use, strengthening of Water User Associations, improving maintenance systems for sustainability, protection of water catchments through reforestation and water conservation, and improved public awareness on water safety and household water treatment.